Introduction to Human Factors

Russell Pizzuto • February 24, 2020

Learn about the human factors of flying.

The term " human factors " has grown increasingly popular as the commercial aviation industry has realized that human error, rather than mechanical failure, underlies most aviation accidents and incidents. If interpreted narrowly, human factors is often considered synonymous with crew resource management (CRM) or maintenance resource management (MRM). However, it is much broader in both its knowledge base and scope. Human factors involves gathering information about human abilities, limitations, and other characteristics and applying it to tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments to produce safe, comfortable, and effective human use. In aviation, human factors is dedicated to better understanding how humans can most safely and efficiently be integrated with the technology. That understanding is then translated into design, training, policies, or procedures to help humans perform better.

Aeronautical Skills:
To fly an airplane safely, you need three sets of separate, but related, skills.

Physical Airplane:
You need basic stick-and-rudder skills to safely control the airplane itself. When you learn to fly; work on a new pilot certificate, rating, or endorsement; or transition to a new airplane, the emphasis naturally tends to fall on maneuvers (“airwork”) that help you develop the necessary “physical airplane” skills.

Mental Airplane:
You need to thoroughly understand and correctly operate the various aircraft systems, which some experts characterize as the “mental airplane” component. These include avionics, hydraulics, fuel, electrical, and other systems that help you aviate, navigate, and communicate.


Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM):
Many pilots get in trouble not because of deficient “physical airplane” or “mental airplane” skills, but because of faulty ADM and risk management skills. Why should that be so? One reason is that ADM, unlike physical airplane and mental airplane skills, is an invisible process. An instructor or examiner can easily observe and evaluate your ability to land the aircraft (physical airplane) or your proficiency in programming the GPS (mental airplane). ADM, on the other hand, is a process that takes place inside the pilot’s brain. Because ADM is harder to observe and evaluate than basic aircraft control and systems skills, it sometimes gets less emphasis than it deserves.

ADM Defined
So what exactly is ADM? In AC 60-22, the FAA defines ADM as a Systematic approach to the mental process of evaluating a given set of circumstances and determining the best course of action.

Although this sentence provides a good description of the ADM process, you may be asking yourself how to translate this formal definition into practices that you can easily use in real world flying. Let’s take a look at one approach.


Crew resource management or cockpit resource management (CRM):
CRM is a set of training procedures for use in environments where human error can have devastating effects. Used primarily for improving aviation safety, CRM focuses on interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in the cockpit of an airliner. Its pioneer was David Beaty, a former Royal Air Force pilot and later a BOAC pilot who wrote his seminal book The Human Factor in Aircraft Accidents in the late 1950s. Despite the considerable development of electronic aids since then, many principles he developed continue to prove effective today.

Crew resource management formally began with a National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommendation made during their investigation of the 1978 United Airlines Flight 173 crash. The issues surrounding that crash included a DC-8 crew running out of fuel over Portland, Oregon while troubleshooting a landing gear problem.

The term "cockpit resource management" (later generalized to "crew resource management") was coined in 1979 by NASA psychologist John Lauber who had studied communication processes in cockpits for several years. While retaining a command hierarchy, the concept was intended to foster a less authoritarian cockpit culture, where co-pilots were encouraged to question captains if they observed them making mistakes.

Crew resource management grew out of the 1977 Tenerife airport disaster where two Boeing 747 aircraft collided on the runway killing 583 people. A few weeks later, NASA held a workshop on the topic, endorsing this innovative training. United Airlines was the first airline to provide CRM training for its cockpit crews in 1981. By the 1990s, it had become a global standard.


Pilot In Command (PIC) Responsibility:
Who is PIC? FAR 1.1 defines the pilot in command as the person who “has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight; has been designated as pilot in command before or during the flight; and holds the appropriate category, class, and type rating—if appropriate—for the conduct of the flight.”


Communication:
Pilots must be able to communicate effectively and efficiently on the radios with Air Traffic Control and other pilots. Pilots are trained to use very specific methodology and terminology when they communicate over the radio with ATC (air traffic control). It is not only a source of great and deserved pride when a pilot affects his or her communication properly, but it can save considerable time and reduce a lot of unnecessary stress.
Single-pilot resource management (SRM):
SRM is an adaptation of crew resource management (CRM) training to single-pilot operations. The purpose of SRM is to reduce the number of aviation accidents caused by human error by teaching pilots about their own human limitations and how to maximize their performance. The initiative for this training began in 2005 when the NBAA published training guidelines for single-pilot operations of very light jets (VLJs). However, the application of SRM is not limited to VLJ pilots. This training applies to all single-pilot flights in general aviation (GA).

In the United States, GA accounts for 96% of aircraft, 60% of flight hours. It also accounts for 94% of fatal aviation accidents, Airline and military aviation estimates of the number of accidents caused by pilot error range from 70-80% - these are the statistics that SRM seeks to reduce.
Training
The content of SRM is similar to that of CRM training, except the topics relating to pilot crews are excluded (ex. captain and co-pilot communication). Examples of topics included in SRM training are situational awareness, workload management, automation management, and aeronautical decision making.


Workload Management:
Pilots have many tasks to perform; these are normally shared between the pilot flying (PF) and the pilot not flying (PNF). Flight crew workload varies, even during routine flights, from low to high and will rise in the event of abnormal weather conditions or aircraft malfunctions. During high workload, flight crew are especially vulnerable to error if their strategies for effective multi tasking break down. This is the aspect of workload considered here. However, during periods of low workload in the cruise, a different sort of error vulnerability may arise which stems from the low Level of Arousal which typifies this flight phase and sometimes from Complacency as well.


Situational Awareness:
Put simply, situational awareness (SA) means appreciating all you need to know about what is going on when the full scope of your task - flying, controlling or maintaining an aircraft - is taken into account. More specifically and in the context of complex operational environments, SA is concerned with the person's knowledge of particular task-related events and phenomena. For example, for a fighter pilot SA means knowing about the threats and intentions of enemy forces as well as the status of his/her own aircraft. For an air traffic controller, SA means (at least partly) knowing about current aircraft positions and flight plans and predicting future states so as to detect possible conflicts. Therefore, in operational terms, SA means having an understanding of the current state and dynamics of a system and being able to anticipate future change and developments.

Aviation Physiology:
Pilots must constantly be aware of the physical and mental effects of flight. From gauging the effects of fatigue or high altitude on the body to using oxygen (even when it’s not required), this awareness can make a difference in the safe outcome of a flight. Pilots also must judge their performance as they age, matching the flight operations and type of aircraft with their abilities.


Alcohol, Drugs, and Performance: Federal Aviation Regulation (CFR) 91.17
The use of alcohol and drugs by pilots is regulated by CFR 91.17. Among other provisions, this regulation states that no person may operate or attempt to operate an aircraft:

  • within 8 hours of having consumed alcohol
  • while under the influence of alcohol
  • with a blood alcohol content of 0.04% or greater
  • while using any drug that adversely affects safety

Fitness for Flight:
FAR 61.53, Prohibition on operations during medical deficiency. It starts by clearly laying out that pilots who hold a medical certificate cannot serve as pilot in command, or a required pilot crewmember, while they know or have “reason to know” of any medical condition that would make them “unable to meet the requirements for the medical certificate necessary for the operation” or are taking medication or receiving “other treatment” that would result in them being unable to meet those requirements.

Newsletter 9/29/23

September 29, 2023
NEW AT NSPIRE

5 Steps to Switching Careers Into Aviation

By Marcus Lansky • September 29, 2023
Maybe you’ve been thinking about making a dramatic career change. If you’ve always dreamed about becoming a pilot, this could be your opportunity to make that dream a reality. By taking a certification course with NSPIRE Aviation , you can kick off a new career as a commercial pilot! Furthermore, these tips will show you how to enhance your resume to secure your first job, and even walk you through some of the requirements for starting your own aviation business. Figure Out if It’s Time for a Change When do you know that it’s time for a career change? Sometimes, looking for a new job in the same field is enough - but sometimes, you need to completely shift directions. Robert Walters Group states that if your skills do not align with your true professional interests, it may be a sign to work on breaking into a new field, where you can pour your talents into a job that you love. Get Certified as a Commercial Pilot You’re committed to making a career change, and you’re ready to take the first big step towards becoming a commercial pilot by earning your pilot’s license. You’ll need to complete a private pilot certification first, earn an instrument rating, get your necessary flight hours under your belt, and then pass a written and practical exam covering everything you’ve learned. Finally, you’ll be ready to get your commercial pilot’s license! Update Your Resume If you’re getting ready to look for your first job as a commercial pilot, you might be wondering how to create a resume . Changing up your resume when switching fields can take time, so start this process early! AVJobs states that you can include your flight times, certifications, and ratings, as well as your previous jobs. Finally, even after you’ve created a strong resume, don’t forget that you can tweak it for each job opening. For example, you might want to add different keywords to the skills section based on the job description. You can also emphasize specific accomplishments in your professional history and academic sections. Navigate the Job Hunt You’ve got your license, your resume is ready, and you’re eager to start working as a pilot. You may need to get a flight instructor certification first, as it’s much easier to find employment as a flight instructor when you have minimal experience. Research different employers in your area, and try to network with people who already work there - they might be able to give you a valuable reference that could land you an interview! Even in the aviation field, networking is often the key to getting the job you want. Consider Starting Your Own Business One day, you might want to start your own business in the commercial aviation sector. For instance, if you live in an area that attracts tourists, you might want to offer private flights to show off the aerial views of your region. If you intend to start a business, you’ll have to obtain a business license first, as well as any appropriate permits. To find out which licenses and permits you’ll need, check out the requirements in your state. By hiring a service to assemble the list of required permits and licenses for your aviation business, you’ll save hours of time! Working in commercial aviation is an exciting career choice. If you’ve been itching for a career change, it might be time to take to the skies. With these tips, you’ll be ready to pursue a certification program, spruce up your resume for job applications, and even launch your very own aviation business in the future. Ready to earn your commercial pilot certification? Turn to NSPIRE Aviation ! Fill out the contact form on their website to learn more about the certification programs. Ready to earn your commercial pilot certification? Photo via Unsplash
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